Tuesday, November 19, 2024
Tuesday, November 12, 2024
Monday, November 4, 2024
Monday, October 28, 2024
Tuesday, October 15, 2024
Lista de Estudiantes Asistentes
María Cetino
José Guizán
Daniela Fonseca
Nicole Leithof
Amarillis Rubido
Ariana Tacher
Samantha Tang
Ricardo Uzcátegui
Augusto Valero
Monday, October 14, 2024
Wednesday, October 9, 2024
Monday, October 7, 2024
Friday, October 4, 2024
Thursday, October 3, 2024
La invasión del "fake" research (o por qué debemos considerar lo "fake" como una parte del todo)
Climate scientist admits to overhyping research to get published (in the Telegraph)
Are you surprised? 😂
Let's do a bit of Philosophy of statistics.
I remember Professor Barr's adage in my Statistical Analysis class: if you find two compelling reasons for a mistake (outside the research), it's not a mistake.
What an error in statistics?
Observational error (or Measurement error) is the difference between a measured value of a quantity and its true value. In statistics, an error is not necessarily a "mistake."
The reason is that variability is an inherent part of the results of measurement processes.
Measurement errors can be divided into two: random and systematic.
Random errors are errors in measurement that lead to inconsistent measurable values when repeated measurements of a constant attribute or quantity are taken (errors can get repeated even if looking for proof)
Systematic errors are not determined by chance but are introduced by repeatable processes inherent to the system.
Put differently, the house would lose if randomness was true.
A systematic error is not determined by chance but by a repeatable process inherent to the system. In gambling parlance, Casino bias is part of the game; otherwise, the House loses!
Now, is complete randomness REAL? Some think not.
If not, how do you argue?
Tuesday, October 1, 2024
Tuesday, September 24, 2024
Criteria of adequacy of scientific theories (importante)
The features of what distinguishes a good theory from a bad one:
1. Consistency: Lack of internal contradictions.
2. Simplicity: Quality of relying on only a small number of assumptions.
3. Scope: The amount of diverse phenomena observed.
4. Conservatism: Quality of fitting well with existing theories.
5. Fruitfulness: The number of new facts predicted of problems solved.
Monday, September 23, 2024
Some excellent Math texts I recommend
Tom Apostol Vol. 1, & Volume 2, (PDF) for Calculus 1, 2 & 3.
Advanced Calculus (PDF), by Lynn Loomis and Schlomo Sternberg.
A great Linear Algebra Introduction (PDF).
Intro to Abstract Algebra, by Michael Artin (2nd Edition).
Differential Equations, PDF, by Paul Blanchard.
Applied Partial Differential Equations, PDF, David Logan.
Introduction to Set Theory PDF, by Herbert Enderton, PDF.
Thursday, September 19, 2024
Logical and causal possibility (think of mind experiments)
Is Superman logically possible? The first step in the evidence that p is possible is to be able to conceive it. Just that.
Can Superman be conceived?
Yes, that's why we talk about him and can even watch him in a movie.
Now, Clearly, not everything that is conceivable is possible. For example, Superman, dragons, gremlins, and succubi are all conceivable but not possible.
Why not? They violate laws of nature.
Remember: If p is conceivable, then from 2. It's logically possible.
3. p is causally possible if it doesn't violate a law of nature.
LI → CI
CP → LP
Tuesday, September 17, 2024
¿Qué es un experimento mental? (mind experiment)
¿Qué es la verdad?
En clase les he dicho que la verdad es complicada. Y lo es, pero eso no significa que la filosofía no haya definido el concepto de verdad.
En general tenemos tres definiciones:
1. Correspondence Theory of Truth (la verdad como correspondencia),
A proposition is true by its correspondence with reality.
Ejemplo: Un vertebrado es un animal que tiene un esqueleto con columna vertebral y cráneo, y cuyo sistema nervioso central está formado por la médula espinal y el encéfalo.
2. The Coherence Theory of Truth (la verdad como coherencia con lo que ya se cree).
Truth is what best coheres with our existing knowledge.
Ejemplo: En cosmología, se entiende por Big Bang, o Gran Explosión, al comienzo del universo, es decir, el punto inicial en el que se formó la materia, el espacio y el tiempo.
3. The Pragmatic Theory of Truth (la verdad pragmática).
Truth is, whatever best does the job at hand.
Ejemplo: El cuadro Guernica de Picasso es una obra maestra de la pintura del siglo XX.
Thursday, September 12, 2024
Cause and effect can betray even the smartest amongst us!
Take this simple example: Pluto's barking causes Dick to wake up.
4. There's no common cause, Think of a person suffering from depression. You could frame their depression using the common-cause relationship as well. Depression leads to a lack of motivation AND a lack of appetite.
so, we have:
2. It's nearly impossible for Pluto to bark and Dick not to wake up,
4. Suppose both the barking and waking up is caused by a person jumping Dick's fence and making a noise which causes Pluto to bark and Dick to wake up).
necessary, sufficient, and contributory causes:
Pluto's barking is a necessary cause of Dick's waking up if the barking precedes the waking, but it doesn't imply the latter will occur, i.e., Dick may not wake up (it's not guaranteed).
Pluto's barking is a sufficient cause of Dick's waking up if the the barking necessarily imply the waking, although another cause may also contribute to Dick's waking (noise coming from the bathroom where Dick's wife was taking a shower). Here the presence of the waking doesn't guarantee the prior occurrence of the barking.
A cause is a contributory cause if it's one among several co-occurrent causes. In general, there is no implication that a contributory cause is necessary, though it may be so.
Reciprocally, a contributory cause is not sufficient for the effect, because it is by definition accompanied by other causes, which would not count as causes if they are sufficient, for your information, most causes are contributory, i.e., there are more than one.
Want one paramount example of contributory causation?
Fallacies (watch out, most of info you get from sources is fallacious)
A fallacy is an argument which provides poor reasoning in support of its conclusion. Here are some examples:
Begging the Question: The argument's conclusion is used as one of its premises. Basically the proof is assumed.
A: He's mad right now.
B: How do you know?
A: Because he's really angry.
Of course smoking causes cancer. The smoke from cigarettes is a carcinogen!
Prosecutor to defendant: So how did you feel when you killed your wife?
Ad hominem (or Against the Person): When someone tries to win an argument by denigrating its presenter (favorite fallacy used by politicians and the media to put down an enemy)
"You claim that this man is innocent, but you cannot be trusted since you are a criminal as well."
"Hey, Professor Moore, we shouldn't have to read this book by Freud. Everyone knows he used cocaine."
Argumentum ad Populum (Literally "Argument to the People"): Using an appeal to popular assent, often by arousing the feelings and enthusiasm of the multitude rather than building an argument.
Ex: "The Bold and
the Listless must be a great book. It’s been on the best
seller list for 8 weeks."
Appeal to ignorance (ad ignorantiam): It has two forms: The fallacy occurs when you argue that your conclusion must be true,
because there is no evidence against it. Ad ignorantiam wrongly shifts the
burden of proof away from the one making the claim.
"She hasn't said she doesn't like you, right? So she's probably interested. Call her up."
"Nobody has conclusively proven that the Yeti doesn't exist, therefore it must exist."
"I thought I had every reason to think I was doing fine leading the group; no one complained."
Hasty Generalization: You are guilty of hasty generalization when jumping into conclusion about all things of a certain type based on evidence that concerns only a few things of that type (favorite argument used by politicians and ideologues).
"The department of law enforcement in Miami is corrupt. Five police officers in three different departments were involved in drug dealing in 2017" (right answer: Miami has 4,780 police employees, i.e., 5 corrupt officers are 0.16% of the force).
"Men are toxic! It's crystal clear: They perpetrate over 76% of the violent crime in the US." (right answer: violent men committing violent crimes constitute 6% of the population of males in the US).
Appeal to Authority: A claim is accepted because not because of its merit, but because of the authority (power, fame, etc) of the person saying it.
"Pacifism is a good idea because the brilliant scientist Einstein advocated it."
"If the Pope says it, it must be true."
"Nobody is a better judge than public opinion."
Red Herring: This fallacy consists in diverting attention from the real issue by focusing instead on an issue having only a surface relevance to the first.
Daughter: "I'm so hurt that Todd broke up with me, Mom."
Mother: "Just think of all the starving children in Africa, honey. Your problems will seem pretty insignificant then."
Appeal to Fear: To use threat or harm to advance an argument. Ex: "If we don’t stop petroleum consumption, global warming will increase. Therefore, we need to stop petroleum consumption immediately."
False Dilemma: It presumes that there are only two alternatives to a given problem, when in fact there are more than two.
"Either science can explain how she was cured or else, it's a miracle."
"Since there is nothing good on TV tonight, I will just have to get drunk."
"If you are don't accept our climate catastrophe, then you're a denier!"
False Cause: Supposing that two events are connected when in fact they are not.
"They had a very successful business. Then they decided to adopt a child, and the business went immediately into the red."
Inconsistency: A person commits the fallacy of inconsistency when he or she makes contradictory claims.
"I'm a strong believer in freedom of speech. However, when a person like John Dean can influence our youth , you have to draw a line and say no more."
"This is the truth: truth is subjective."
Etimological fallacy: Believing that the present day meaning of a word of concept should necessarily be similar to its historical meaning.
"So-and-so" (a phrase used in the 19th Century) should not be used anymore. It's very offensive!
Necessary and sufficient conditions
Necessary conditions:
X is a necessary condition for Y,
(yet, to say that X is a necessary condition for Y does not mean that X guarantees Y)
Having gasoline in my car (gasoline engine cars) is a necessary condition for my car to start. Yet, having gasoline in the car does not guarantee that my car will start. There are many other conditions needed for my car to start.
Having oxygen in the earth's atmosphere is a necessary condition for human life. However, having oxygen will not guarantee human life. There are many other conditions needed for human life other than oxygen in the atmosphere.
Sufficient conditions:
X is a sufficient condition for Y,
if X is present, Y happens (X guarantees Y)
Rain pouring from the sky is a sufficient condition for the ground to be wet (not necessary, since the ground could be wet for other reasons).
______
Test yourself:
*Is sunlight a necessary or sufficient condition for the flowers to bloom?
*Is earning a final grade of C a necessary or sufficient condition for passing the course?
*Is being a male a necessary or sufficient condition for being a father?
*Is having AIDS a necessary or sufficient condition for having the HIV virus?
*Is studying for a test a necessary or sufficient condition for passing a test?
*Is completing all the requirements of your degree program a necessary or sufficient condition for earning your degree?
Friday, September 6, 2024
Tuesday, September 3, 2024
deductive and inductive arguments
An argument is a set of premises and a conclusion. Look at this argument:
"Socrates is a man" first premise
"Men are mortal" second premise
________
"Socrates is mortal" conclusion
Now, there are deductive and inductive arguments.
Deductive argument are “truth preserving”, because the truth of its premises guarantees the truth of its conclusion.
Deductive arguments can be valid or invalid. If VALID, then the conclusion necessarily follows from the premises (even if the premises were false).
"Socrates is a man" (T)
"Men are mortal" (T)
________
"Socrates is mortal" (T)
the above argument is valid. in addition the premises are true. if the argument is VALID and its premises true, the conclusion must be true. we call this kind of argument SOUND.
"Socrates is a man" (T)
"Men are immortal" (F)
__________
"Socrates is immortal" (F)
the above argument IS VALID, i.e, though the conclusion follows from the premises, though one premise is false. We have a false premise and a false conclusion, yet the above argument is VALID, but UNSOUND
______________
INDUCTIVE ARGUMENTS:
An inductive argument establishes a conclusion with high degree of probability. Here the truth of their premises does not guarantee the truth of their conclusion.
Every windstorm observed so far in this area comes from the north. We can see a big cloud of dust in the distance. So, probably a new windstorm is coming from the north.
Analysis: The above argument is a strong inductive argument. The "so far" in the premise is simple and cautious, and the conclusion uses "probably." Strong inductive arguments establish the conclusion with high probability IF the premises were true.
An Athenian has been observed to have further property X
Therefore, a Spartan probably also has property X.
axis of knowledge
In the Y axis, I know that I know (certainty)
In the X axis, I know I don't know (doubt, duda, la filosofía)
In the -Y axis, I don't know, I know (self deceit, autoengaño)
In the -X axis, I don't know I don't know (blissful ignorance or self-deceit)
la naturaleza de la hipótesis
Recuérdese. Hypótesis no es conclusión, es meramente un postulado plausible. La hipótesis necesita confirmación. Esa confirmación se da en las matemáticas en forma absoluta. No así en las demás ciencias experimentales.
¿Qué garantías tenemos que nuestra hipótesis funcione?
De esto vamos a hablar muy pronto.
Friday, August 30, 2024
Tuesday, August 27, 2024
La filosofía y sus ramas (bilingüe)
Axiology: the study of value. What is value? Think of something in terms of good or bad, i.e., "I hate broccoli." "I love R&B." "I hate roaches." "What she did to her sister was wrong." "My grandma's chicken soup is still the best."" I'm not crazy about Picasso's art."
Imagine what law, food, art, economy, and human relationships would be without axiology. A wasteland.
An essential question at this point is whether the value we posit is objective or subjective? In other words,
Is Catena Malbec 2014 good because I lived in Argentina, or am I Argentinian, instead of the juice in the bottle?
When we say "Slavery is wrong," are we talking about now, 2017, or any time in the past or the future?
Axiology is divided into two:
Ethics: evaluating human actions, i.e., right and wrong conduct.
Here, we have different branches:
Metaethics studies the nature of ethical properties, statements, attitudes, and judgments.
Descriptive ethics: People's beliefs about morality.
Normative ethics is the branch of philosophical ethics that investigates the questions that arise when considering how one ought to act morally.
Applied ethics: the analysis, from a moral standpoint, of particular issues in private and public life which are matters of moral judgment.
Ponder this: What makes an action right?
the action's results
the action's intentions
the emotive responses towards the action
the action itself
what (people, society, culture) think of it
Keywords: right, wrong.
Aesthetics is the study of value in the arts or the inquiry into feelings, judgments, or beauty standards and related concepts.
What makes something beautiful, ugly, elegant, awful, attractive, charming, clumsy, mysterious, etc?
Are aesthetic properties objective, subjective, or inter-subjective?
Keywords: beautiful, ugly, amazing (sublime).
Ponder this: Is the sunset beautiful if no one sees it? or better, is there unseen beauty, majesty?
See that though we didn't witness the Big Bang, the idea of such an event has given physicists plenty to talk about. We've seen simulations of it in the movies.
Epistemology: the study of knowledge.
Epistemology investigates the origin, structure, methods, and integrity of knowledge.
How much do we actually know? More importantly, Is our knowledge warranted?
What is the difference between belief and knowledge?
Do I hold false beliefs?
Keywords: belief, truth, justification, explanation.
Metaphysics: the study of what is really real. This is heavy. We're dealing here with principles. The question in metaphysics is the existence status of any kind of stuff.
Consider the truths of mathematics: how is it that a triangle exists? Are points, lines, or planes really real?
What is a soul?
Under what conditions are these entities possible?
Keywords: identity, change, being, necessity, accident, category, etc.
Los presocráticos
what is the fundamental "stuff" (arche) of the universe?
The crucial feature of pre-Socratic philosophy was the use of reason to explain the universe. The philosophers shared the intuition that there was a single explanation that could explain both the plurality and the singularity of the whole. For some reason, they believed this fundamental stuff of the universe was univocal. They called it archë.
Milesian school (born in Miletus)
Anaximander (610-546 BC), a geometer and the first writer on philosophy. He came up with the idea of apeiron , i.e., an undefined, unlimited substance without qualities, out of which the primary opposites.
Thales of Miletus: (of the Milesian school) Thales claims that the world rests on water with the view that water is the archē or fundamental principle, and he adds that “that from which they come to be is a principle of all things.” He suggests that Thales chose water because of its fundamental role in coming-to-be, nutrition, and growth and claims that water is the origin of the nature of moist things. archë is water because, as a substance, it contains motion and change.
Heraclitus: The universe is a state of perpetual flux, connected by logical structure or pattern, which he termed logos.
Xenophanes: comes up with the notion of pephuke (explanation), which states that X is really Y when Y reveals the true character of X.
Pythagoras: the notion that NUMBER (or mathematics) reveals the structure of the universe.
Eleatic School (born in Elea)
Parmenides: is the father of metaphysics and rationalism. His theory is that what IS CANNOT NOT BE. So, BEING (NOUS) is UNCHANGING. For something to change, it has to NOT BE, which is a contradiction because NOTHING cannot exist, and out of nothing, nothing comes.
Atomist School
The Atomists: Leucippus (5th BC) and his pupil Democritus of Abdera (460-370 BC) from Thrace. the arche are atoms: small primary bodies, infinite in number, indivisible and imperishable, qualitatively similar, but distinguished by their shapes. They move eternally through the infinite void. They collide and unite, thus generating objects that differ in accordance with the varieties in number, size, shape, etc. We are ALL atoms.
The Pluralist School
Empedocles: comes up with the principle of attraction and rejection, or LOVE and STRIFE. One cannot be without the other. Love unites, strife separates.